Scientific, nautical, surveying, [ photographic, cinematographic, ] optical, [ weighing, ] measuring, signaling, checking, [ life-saving and teaching ] apparatus and instruments, in particular encoders, namely, optical encoders, magnetic encoders, incremental encoders, sine encoders, absolute encoders, end-shaft encoders, shaft encoders, hollow shaft encoders, cone shaft rotary encoders, single-turn encoders, multi-turn encoders, encoders with interfaces for fibre-optic light guides, encoders with high shock resistance, encoders with high vibration resistance, shaft encoders with clamping flange, shaft encoders with synchro flange, encoder combinations, in particular encoders with tachogenerators with electric speed switches incorporated therewith; electric speed switches; acceleration sensors; tachometers; [ spindle positioning systems comprised of electric actuators, electric format alignment sensors; ] magnetic electronic sensors for linear and rotary applications; automated process control system, namely, micro-processor based hardware and software used to monitor the status of industrial machinery, namely, tachogenerators, tachogenerators without bearing, end shaft tachogenerators, shaft tachogenerators, cone shaft tachogenerators, tachogenerators with housing with internal bearing, tachogenerators with high shock resistance, and tachogenerators with high vibration resistance [ ; electrical resolver, electrical shaft resolver, hollow shaft electrical resolver; electric inclination sensors ]